STRATEGY & CREATIVITY

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Tampilkan postingan dengan label Psycholinguistics. Tampilkan semua postingan

Kreativitas Linguistik
Ilmu yang menelaah tentang bahasa tidak bisa dipisahkan dari pemakai bahasa tersebut. Fungsi bahasa sangat penting dalam kehidupan manusia. Para ahli ilmu sosial mulai mengkaji hubungan antara manusia dalam hubungannya dengan bahasa sebagai alat interaksi sosial (social interaction), sehingga munculah ilmu tentang bahasa (linguistik).

Bahasa merupakan suatu sistem komunikasi. Telaah ilmu bahasa tidak bisa dipisahkan dari pemakai bahasa. Salah satu tujuan linguistik adalah memberikan sifat-sifat bahasa yang umum bagi manusia dan yang membedakannya dari sistem komunikasi binatang.

Cairns (1976: 5) menyatakan bahwa bila kita ingin memandang bahasa sebagai suatu ciri biologis manusia, maka haruslah kita menjelaskan bagaimana caranya suatu sistem biologis seperti otak manusia dapat mewujudkan kreativitas.

Maka dari itu aspek kreatif bahasa harus mendapat perhatian yang besar. Dalam artikel ini akan dibahas mengenai kreativitas bahasa, khususnya pada aspek kreativitas yang keempat yaitu kesanggupan kosa kata baru.

Kreativitas atau produktivitas merupakan ciri bahasa yang universal dan Chomsky selalu menekankan adanya kesemestaan bahasa, universalia bahasa atau “linguistic universals” atau “language universals”. (Silitonga, 1976:121)

Kreativitas lingusitik mempunyai 4 aspek, yaitu:
Keterbatasan ekspresi linguistik
Relatif bebas dari pengawasan stimulus
Keserasian ujaran dengan keadaan
Kesanggupan mencipta kosakata baru

Kesanggupan Mencipta Kosa Kata Baru
Aspek keempat dari kreativitas linguistik adalah kemampuan mencipta kosa kata baru. Cara untuk membentuk kata-kata baru ada bermacam-macam, diantaranya:

Dengan penggabungan kata-kata atau bagian-bagian kata yang sudah ada sebelumnya.
Dengan jalan mengganti makna kata-kata yang telah dipergunakan sebelumnya.
Dengan jalan meminjam kata-kata dari bahasa lain, baik bahasa daerah maupun bahasa asing.
Dengan jalan menciptakan kata-kata baru, yang sebelumnya belum pernah ada.
Dalam hal ini sistem bahasa sebagai satuan kognitif nampak ketika setiap orang yang normal dalam jangka waktu yang tidak tentu menganggap ucapan-ucapan baru sebagai ucapan-ucapan yang wajar.

A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above. It is sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as;

being the minimal possible unit in a reply
having features such as; a regular stress pattern and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at word boundaries.
being the largest unit resistant to insertion of new constituents within its boundaries, or
being the smallest constituent that can be moved within a sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical.

Meaning is a notion in semantics classically defined as having two components:

Reference, anything in the referential realm denoted by a word or expression, and
Sense, the system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between a lexical unit and other lexical units in a language.

It concluded that the word is stored in our mind based on the share of factors: one is based on the frequency, there is described the capabilities-based, because there is phonetic similarity, because there is a semantic proximity, and by others as a syntatic category. Semantic features also play a major rule because of the proximity between an entity by entity also may be caused by the amount and type of the same similar features.

Humans can understand the conversation because they can recognize words that they heard the truth intuitively based on the knowledge they have about their language and culture. They can also take the words as they talk, they need time for these words are arranged systematically.

Memory is formed and used through three stages: input, storage, and output (Clark and Clark, 1977; Engel, 1999). At the input stage, people generally accept input, either oral or written, and then give an interpretation of the input to understand.

Usually people pay attention to meaning, not words. Therefore, the information stored in memory instead of words heard or read, but the entire contents of words. That is why when people have to restate what they heard or read, they will not use these words in exactly the same input.

Presenting exactly the word for word, only occurs in certain things, like going to the actor and singer who had to memorize the script and song lyrics. Storage phase begins with the process of storing information in a short memory. Things that felt no need, or just takes a few moments, just stored in a short memory.

When the need is felt to be stored for a long time, information will be “sent” to the long-term memory. Long-term memory store not only the meaning. Sometimes it memorized word for word also stored there.

In the output stage, there are two methods used:

Recognition
recall

Recognition memory is the calling process by asking someone to be able to recognize something that has been given to him earlier. For example, someone asked if he saw certain things before. Then, there is the recognition process.

At recall, people were asked to state what has been seen or heard before. For example, he was asked to name the things he had ever seen before. In general, recognition easier than recall.

Both in recognition and recall, people use three external information (Clark and Clark, 1977).
First, by utilizing the knowledge of its language, people determine which ones might be and what is not.
Second, people also take advantage of his knowledge of the world.
Third, people also make use of knowledge in discourse. If, convention, there are two people, men and women, the word “they” must refer to two people. And the word “he” must refer to one person.

Memorization is also a memory, but the process is different. The memory can be formed without any special effort to get it. If someone tell you what happened in this morning, will be enters into your memory just from listening the stories.

In contrast, a memory will memorize rote with effort or a specific action. Generally, it is done by learning and speaking many times to be stored in memory. Something will be able to be easily memorized if significant (Clark and Clark, 1977). An information will not be easy to memorize if the information is not grammatical.

Further reading :
Clark and Clark. (1977). Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Bahasa (Language)
Makna bahasa dalam hal ini adalah suatu sistem dari isyarat untuk menyandikan dan menterjemahkan informasi. Hematnya, bahasa merupakan sebuah alat komunikasi yang digunakan manusia untuk mengekspresikan pikiran ataupun perasaan dalam bentuk simbol-simbol komunikasi baik lisan, tulisan ataupun gestur.

Pikiran (Thought)
Pikiran pada umumnya mengacu pada aktivitas mental atau intelektual yang melibatkan kesadaran subjektif seseorang. Dalam segi berbahasa, pikiran, singkatnya merupakan kemampuan mental seseorang dalam memahami dan menghasilkan suatu ungkapan/ucapan.

Ucapan (Utterance)
Ucapan merupakan suara yang dihasilkan langsung dari seseorang yang berbicara. Dengan kata lain, ucapan merupakan kata, kalimat ataupun gagasan yang dihasilkan oleh sesorang melalui suatu proses yang terjadi didalam otak yang kemudian "di interpretasikan" kedalam bunyi/suara (ucapan) yang memiliki arti/makna.

Bahasa dan Pikiran (Language & Thought)
Otak adalah pusat koordinasi dari semua aktivitas linguistik; ia mengatur produksi kognisi linguistik dan pemaknaan, serta mekanika dari produksi lisan. Dengan kata lain, bahasa dan pikiran memiliki hubungan yang interaktif.

Untuk pembahasan yang lebih lanjut mengenai hubungan antara bahasa dan pikiran, Anda bisa membacanya disini atau di wikiversity.org

Bahasa dan Ucapan (Language & Utterance)
Bahasa merupakan sebuah bentuk ucapan yang mengandung makna dan dapat dipahami oleh manusia.

Pikiran dan Ucapan (Thought & Utterance)
Pada umumnya, pikiran dapat diungkapkan dengan kata-kata atau kalimat. Dengan kata lain, kata atau kalimat yang diucapkan merupakan sebuah hasil dari suatu proses yang terjadi didalam otak.

Paradigm in the intellectual discipline is the perspective of one's self and the environment that will influence the thinking (cognitive), attitude (affective), and behave (conative). Paradigm can also mean a set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices applied in looking reality in the same community, in particular, in an intellectual discipline.

The word paradigm comes from the Middle Ages in England which is the derived from the Latin word in 1483 , the paradigm means a model or pattern; paradeigma Greek (the deiknunai +) which means to "compare", "contiguous" (para) and show (deik).

The Paradigm of Psycholinguistics
Development of language acquisition theory in this century have been influenced by the development of psychology Omega (in Yulianto, 2007: 10-11). In psycholinguistics, there are two streams which contradicts the basic principle, namely behaviorism and cognitivism. The second stream is influence in language learning experts looked at how a young man learning the language.

About how people acquire or learn the language, Ellis (in Yulianto, 2007:10-11) expressed the view that there are three groups, namely (1) the views of behaviorism, (2) view of nativism, and (3) view of interactionism.

Behaviorist
Behaviorism theory was introduced by John B. Watson (1878-1958) an American psychologist. This theory is a continuation of the classic Pavlovian theory of refraction in the form of new and more detailed and supported by new experiments with animals (especially rodents) and child (baby). This theory is the study of objects or things that can be observed directly, the stimulus (stimulus) and feed back (response); are things that happen in the brain not related to the study.

The followers regard language schools of behaviorism as a behavior, which can be obtained through operant procedures (Lynch & Brecker, 1972; Perozzi, 1972: Jeffery, 1973; Miller & Yoder, 1973; in Sellin (1979).

Nativist
Chomsky is one of followers of nativism. According to him, language can only be controlled by humans, animals may not be able to master the human language. Chomsky's opinion is based on several assumptions. First, the language of behavior is something that is inherited (genetic), every language has the same pattern of development (is something that universal), and the neighborhood has a small role in the maturation process of the language. Second, the language can be mastered in a relatively short time. Third, the child's language environment can not provide sufficient data for the mastery of a complex grammar of adults.

According to this ideology, the language is complex and complicated that it is impossible to be mastered in a short time through the "imitation". Nativism also believe that every human being born already equipped with a means to acquire the language (language acquisition device, abbreviated LAD) therefore environmental factors including lack of educational factors influence the development of children.

Interactionist
Interactionism theory is a combination of the two previous approaches of behaviorism and nativism that emphasizes a combination of internal and external factors in the process of language acquisition and learning. Interactsionist approach is the starting point of human cognitive abilities in finding the structure of language around it. Then the process of acquiring and learning is also influenced by the surrounding environment.

That is true, if there is a theory that the child's language skills have been there since birth (has existing LAD). It has been proved by the discoveries as was done by Howard Gardner. He said that, since the birth of children have been equipped with a variety of intelligence. One of the intelligence in question is the language of intelligence.

However, that can not be overlooked is also the environmental factors that affect the child's language skills. Many discoveries that have proved this.

Interactionist Paradigm of Psycholinguistics
Interactionist assumes that language acquisition is the result of interaction between mental ability learners with language environment (Ellis, 1986: 126). The interaction between the two is the manifestation of the actual verbal interaction between the learners with others.

Interactionism approach by van Els (in Yulianto, 2007: 24) calls a procedural approach, where the approach is the interaction between internal factors with external factors are central. Internal factors, a child's mental abilities are very influential.

However, environmental factors also play a role determining the kinds pemerolehannya, especially the lexicon. In addition, Yulianto (2001: 563) also agree to view Dardjowidjojo (2000: 304) which revealed that the natural and environmental factors influence the child's language acquisition. Explicitly this view in accordance with the views of interactionism (Ellis, 1986:129).

The starting point of this approach is the cognitive abilities of children in discovering the structure of language in surrounding. Good understanding and language production in children is seen as a system of discovery procedures are constantly evolving and changing.

Application of Interactionist Paradigm
Both the human and social structure is conceptualized in a more complex, more unpredictable, and is active when compared to the sociological perspectives of conventional. On this side of society composed of individuals - individuals who interact are not just react, but also capture, interpret, act, and create. Individuals are not a bunch of properties, but it is a dynamic and changing actor, who is always in the process of becoming and never fully completed form.

Society is not something static "out there" that always influence and shape us, but in essence is a process of interaction. Individuals not only have a mind (mind), but also the self (self) is not a psychological entity, but an aspect of the social processes that emerge in the process of experience and social activities. In addition, the whole process of symbolic interaction, in which the meanings created by human reason.

Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or determination the meaning of the other peoples’ actions. This mediation is equivalent to the involvement of the process of interpretation between stimulus and response in case of human behavior.

All interactions between human individuals involves an exchange of symbols. When we interact with others, we are constantly looking for "clues" about the type of behavior is appropriate in that context and on how to interpret what is meant by others.

Symbolic interactionism directs our attention to the interactions between individuals, and how this can be used to understand what others say and do to us as individuals. Symbolic interactionism approach gives much emphasis on the individual active and creative than other theoretical approaches. Symbolic interactionism approach evolved from a concern with language towards; but Mead develop it in different directions and is quite unique. Symbolic interactionism approach assumes that everything is virtual. As an example application of this understanding is the human ability to create a forum of social interaction; organizations and the creation of verbal art.

Go-Blog - Psycholinguistics is the study of the language processing mechanisms. Psycholinguistics deals with the mental processes a person uses in producing and understanding language. It is concerned with the relationship between language and the human mind, for example; how word, sentence, and discourse meaning are represented and computed in the mind.

As the name suggests, it is a subject which links psychology and linguistics. Psycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and linguistics. It is an area of study which draws insights from linguistics and psychology and focuses upon the comprehension and production of language.

Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions:

how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?
how do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?
how do people produce language (language production)?
how do people acquire a new language (second language acquisition)?

To this point, by understanding those general questions in terms of psycholinguistics studies, we can conclude that ;

The common aim of psycholinguists is to find out the structures and processes which underline a human's ability to speak and understand language.
Psycholinguists are not necessarily interested in language interaction between people. They are trying above all to probe into what is happening within the individual.
At its heart, psycholinguistic work consists of two questions.

1. What knowledge of language is needed for us to use language?

2. What processes are involved in the use of language?

The "Knowledge Questions"
Four broad areas of language knowledge:

Semantics deals with the meanings of sentences and words.
Syntax involves the grammatical arrangement of words within the sentence.
Phonology concerns the system of sounds in a language.
Pragmatics entails the social rules involved in language use.

It is not ordinarily productive to ask people explicitly what they know about these aspects of language. We infer linguistic knowledge from observable behavior.

The "Process Questions"
What cognitive processes are involved in the ordinary use of language?

Ordinary use of languag: e.g. understanding a lecture, reading a book, writing a letter, and holding a conversation, etc.
Cognitive process: processes like perception, memory and thinking.
Although we do few things as often or as easily as speaking and listening, we will find that considerable cognitive processing is going on during those activities.

Two possible directions of study in psycholinguistic

Language as a way of explaining psycholinguistic theories and processes: language influences memory, perception, attention and learning.
The effects of psychological constraints on the use of language: how memory limitations affect language production and comprehension.