Base grades on student achievement, and achievement only. Grades should represent the extent to which the intended learning outcomes were achieved by students. They should not be contaminated by student effort, tardiness, misbehavior, and other extraneous factors. . . . If they are permitted to become part of the grade, the meaning of the grade as an indicator of achievement is lost.

Gronlund (1998)

1. Develop an informed, comprehensive personal philosophy of grading that is consistent with your philosophy of teaching and evaluation.
2. Ascertain an institution's philosophy of grading, and, unless otherwise negotiated, conform to that philosophy (so that you are not out of step with others).
3. Design tests that conform to appropriate institutional and cultural expectations of the difficulty that students should experience.
4. Select appropriate criteria for grading and their relative weighting in calculating grades.
5. Communicate criteria for grading to students at the beginning of the course and at subsequent grading periods (mid-term, final).
6. Triangulate letter grade evaluations with alternatives that are more formative and that give more washback.

Papers and general subject reports
Essays, compositions
Academically focused journals
Short-answer test responses
Technical reports (e.g., lab reports)
Theses, dissertations

Messages (e.g., phone messages)
Letters/emails
Memos (e.g., interoffice)
Reports (e.g., job evaluations, project reports)
Schedules, labels, signs
Advertisements, announcements
Manuals

Letters, emails, greeting cards, invitations
Messages, notes
Calendar entries, shopping lists, reminders
Financial documents (e.g., checks, tax forms, loan applications)
Forms, questionnaires, medical reports, immigration documents
Diaries, personal journal
Fiction (e.g., short stories, poetry)

Being able to reading is being able to
understand, use and reflect on written texts,
in order to:
achieve…
one’s goals,
to develop…
one’s knowledge and potential
and to participate
in society.

John H.A.L. de Jong

• General interest articles (in magazines, newspapers, etc.)
• Technical reports (e.g., lab reports), professional journal articles
• Reference material (dictionaries, etc.)
• Textbooks, theses
• Essays, papers
• Test directions
• Editorials and opinion writing

• Messages (e.g., phone messages)
• Letters/emails
• Memos (e.g., interoffice)
• Reports (e.g., job evaluations, project reports)
• Schedules, labels, signs, announcements
• Forms, applications, questionnaires
• Financial documents (bills, invoices, etc.)
• Directories (telephone, office, etc.)
• Manuals, directions

• Newspapers and magazines
• Letters, emails, greeting cards, invitations
• Messages, notes, lists
• Schedules (train, bus, plane, etc.)
• Recipes, menus, maps, calendars
• Advertisements (commercials, want ads)
• Novels, short stories, jokes, drama, poetry
• Financial documents (e.g., checks, tax forms, loan applications)
• Forms, questionnaires, medical reports, immigration documents
• Comic strips, cartoons

You : Hey, Go, how's it going?
Me : Not bad, and yourself?
You : I'm good.
Me : Cool. Okay, gotta go.

1. Performance
2. Observing

• Several tests that are combined to form an assessment
• A single test with multiple test tasks to account for learning styles and performance variables
• In-class and extra-class graded work
• Alternative forms of assessment (e.g., journal, portofolio)

1. Comprehending of surface structure elements such as phonemes, words, intonation, or a grammatical category
2. Understanding of pragmatic context
3. Determining of pragmatic context
4. Developing the gist, a global or comprehensive understanding

• Listening dor perception of the components (phonemes, words, intonation, etc) of a larger stretch of language.

• Listening to a relatively short stretch of language ( a greeting, question, command, etc) in order to make an equally short response.

• Processing stretches of discourse such as short monologues for several minutes in order to scan for certain information. The purpose of such performance is to comprehend designated information in a context of longer stretches of spoken language (such as classroom directions from a teacher, stories, news, etc). Assessment task in selective listening could ask student, for example, to listen for name, numbers, directions, or certain facts and events.

• Extensive performance ranges from listening to lengthy lectures to listening to a conversation and deriving a comprehensive message or purpose. Listening for the gist, for the main idea, and making inferences are all part of extensive listening.

8 reasons for what makes listening difficult :

1. Clustering : attending to appropriate chunks of language - phrases, clauses, constituents.
2. Redundancy : recognizing the kinds of repetitions, rephrasing, elaborations, and insertions that unrehearsed spoken language often contains, and benefiting from that recognition.
3. Reduced forms : understanding the reduced forms that may not have been a part of an English learner's past learning experiences in classes where only formal textbook language has been presented.
4. Performance variables : being able to weed out hesitations, false starts, pauses, and corrections in natural speech.
5. Colloquial language : comprehending idioms, slang, reduced forms, shared cultural knowledge.
6. Rate of delivery : keeping up with the speed of delivery, processing automatically as the speaker continues.
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation : correctly understanding prosodic elements of spoken language, which is almost much more difficult that understanding the smaller phonological bits and pieces.
8. Interaction : managing the interactive flow of language from listening to speaking to listening, etc.

• Recognizing Phonological and Morphological Elements
• Pharaprase recognition

• Listening Cloze
• Information Transfer
• Sentence Repetition

• Dictation
• Communicative Stimulus-Response Tasks
• Authentic Listening Tasks

1. The purpose of the TOEFL is to evaluate the English proficiency of people whose native language is not english. It is designed to help institutions to make valid decisions concerning english proficiency in terms of requirements
2. The ESLPT is designed by university faculty and staff to place student into courses in oral or grammar editing.
3. The GET is a test to determine a prospective students –both native or non native speakers in their writting ability to enter graduate level of courses in a programs.

1. purpose,
2. objective,
3. selecting and arrange items,
4. types of scoring, grading, and
5. feedback.

Language Aptitude Tests

• This test is designed to measure capacity or general ability to learn a foreign language and ultimate success in that undertaking. Language aptitude tests are ostensibly designed to apply to the classroom learning of any language.

Proficiency Tests

• This test is not limited to any one course, curriculum, or single skill in the language; rather, it tests overall ability. Proficiency tests have traditionally consisted of standardized multiple-choice items on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension and aural comprehension.

Placement Tests

• A placement test usually, but not always, includes a sampling of the material to be covered in the various courses in a curriculum; a student's performance on the test should indicate the point at which the student will find material neither too easy nor too difficult but appropriately challenging.

Diagnostic Tests

• A diagnostic test is designed to diagnose specified aspects of a language. A test in pronunciation, for example, might diagnose the phonological features of English that are difficult for learners and should therefore become part of a curriculum.
• Usually, such tests offer a checklist of features for the administrator (teacher) to use in pinpointing difficulties.

Achievement Tests

• This test is related directly to classroom lessons, units, or even a total curriculum. Achievement tests are limited to particular material addressed in a curriculum within a particular time frame and are offered after a course has focused on the objectives in question. Its also serve the diagnostic role of indicating what a student to continue to work on in the future, but the primary role of an achievement test is to determine whether course objectives have been met and appropriate knowledge and skills acquired by the end of a period of instruction.

• Assessing Clear, Unambiguous Objectives by knowing the purpose of the test we’re creating

• Determine a simple and practical outline, tested skills, and decide forms of item types and tasks.

• Devising Test Tasks by drafting the questions, revising the draft, request aid from colleague, and imagine yourself as a student who write for this test.

• Designing Multiple-choice items by checking practicality, reliability and facility of cheating.

• Teacher’s assign letter grade level depend on i.e., culture, context, and relations of the English classroom and teachers expectation.

• Even weight and points on each section.

• After testing, students’ identification of success and challenge can be given.

• They require students to perform, create, produce or do something
• They use real-word context or simulations
• They are noinstrusive in that they extend the day to day classroom activities
• They allow students to be asssesed on what they normally do in class
• They use tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities
• They focus on processes as well as products
• They tap into higher-level thinking and problem solving skills

• Students make a constructed response
• They engage in higher- order thinking , with open –ended tasks
• Tasks are meaningful , engaging, and authenthic
• Tasks call for the integration of language skills
• Both process and product are assesed
• Depth of a student’s mastery is emphasized over breadth

• State the overall goal of the performance,
• Specify the objectives (criteria) of the performance in detail,
• Prepare students for performance in stepwise progressions,
• Use a reliable evaluation form, checklist, or rating sheet,
• Treat performances as opportunities for giving feedback and provide that feedback systematically, and
• If possible, utilize self- and peer-assessments judiciously.

• Essays and compositions in draft and final forms;
• Reports, project outlines;
• Audio and/or video recordings of presentations, demonstrations, etc.;
• Journals, diaries, and other personal reflections;
• Tests, test scores, and written homework exercises;
• Self- and peer-assessments--comments, evaluations, and checklists.

Collecting       : an expression of students' lives and identities.
Reflecting       : thinking about experiences and activities.
Assessing       : evaluating quality and development over time. 
Documenting  : demonstrating student achievement.
Linking             : connecting student and teacher, parent, community, and peer
Evaluating      : generating responsible outcomes.

1. State objectives clearly
2. Give guidelines on what materials to include
3. Communicate assesment criteria to students
4. Designate time within the curriculum for portfolio development.
5. Establish periodic schedules for review and conferencing.
6. Designate an accessible place to keep portfolios.
7. Provide positive washback when giving final assessments.

1. Sensitively introduce students to the concept of journal writing.
2. State the objective(s) of the journal: Language-learning logs, Grammar journals, Responses to readings, strategies-based learning logs, Self-assessment reflections, etc.
3. Give guidelines on what kinds of topics to include.
4. Carefully specify the criteria for assessing or grading journals. Effort as exhibited in the thoroughness of students' entries will no doubt be important. Also, the extent to which entries reflect the processing of course content might be considered. 
5. Provide optimal feedback in your responses: cheerleading feedback, instructional feedback, or reality-check feedback.
6. Designate appropriate time frames and schedules for review.
7. Provide formative, washback-giving final comments.

1. What did you like about this work?
2. What do you think you did well?
3. How does it show improvement from previous work? Can you show me the improvement?
4. What did you do when you did not know a word that you want to write/say? (Genesee and Upshur, 1996).

1. Offer an initial atmosphere of warmth and anxiety-lowering (warm-up).
2. Begin with relatively simple questions.
3. Continue with level-check and probe questions, but adapt to the interviewee as needed.
4. Frame questions simply and directly.
5. Focus on only one factor for each question. Do not combine several objec­tives in the same question.
6. Be prepared to repeat or reframe questions that are not understood.
7. Wind down with friendly and reassuring dosing comments. 

• sentence-level oral production skills.
• pronunciation of target sounds, intonation, etc.
• grammatical features (verb tenses, question formation, etc.
• discourse-level skills (conversation rules, turn-taking, and other macroskills)
• interaction with classmates (cooperation, frequency of oral production)
• frequency of student-initiated responses (whole class, group work)

1. Determine the specific objectives of the observations
2. Decide how many students will be observed at one time
3. Set up the logistics for making unnoticed observations
4. Design a system for recording observed performances
5. Do not overestimate the number of different elements you can observe at one time
6. Plan how many observations you will make
7. Determine specifically how you will use the results

The observer identifies an activity or episode and checks appropriate boxes along a grid. This grid refers to variables such as whole-class, group, and individual participation, linguistic competence (form, function, discourse, sociolinguistic), etc. Each variable has subcategories for better analysis.

One type of rating scale asks teachers to indicate the frequency of occurrence of target performance on a separate frequency scale (always = 5; never = 1).
Another is a holistic assessment scale that requires an overall assessment within a number of categories (for example, vocabulary usage, grammatical correctness, fluency). 

• Assessment of a specific performance
• Indirect assessment of general competence
• Metacognitive assessment for setting goals
• Socioaffective assessment
• Student generated test

1. Tell students the purpose of the assessment.
2. Define the task(s) clearly.
3. Encourage impartial evaluation of performance or ability
4. Ensure beneficial washback through follow-up tasks.

• is not excessively expensive,
• stays within appropriate time constraints,
• is relatively easy to administer, and
• has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific adn time-efficient

A. Student-Related Reliability

• The most common learner-related issue in reliability is caused by temporary illness, fatigue, anxiety and other physical or psychological factors, which may make an "observed" score deviate from one's "true" score.

B. Rater Reliability

• Human error, subjectivity and bias may enter into the scoring process. Inter-rater reliability occurs when two or more scorers yield inconsistent scores on the same test, possibly for lack of attention to scoring criteria, inexperience, inattention, or even preconceived biases.

• Rater-reliability issues are not limited to contexts where two or more scorers are involved. Inter-rater reliability is a common occurrence for classroom teachers because of unclear scoring criteria, fatigue, bias toward particular "good" and "bad" students, or simple carelessness.

C. Test Administration Reliability

• Unreliability may also result from the conditions in which the test is administered. For example, the administration of a test of aural comprehension in which a tape recorder played items for comprehension, but because of street noise outside the building, students sitting next to windows could not hear the tape accurately. This was a clear case of unreliability caused by the conditions of the test administration.

D. Test Reliability

• Sometimes the nature of the test itself can cause measurement errors. If a test is too long, test-takers may become fatigued by the time they reach the later items and hastily respond incorrectly. Timed test may discriminate against students who do not perform well on a test with a time limit. We all know people who "know" the course material perfectly, but who are adversely affected by the presence of a clock ticking away. Poorly written test items may be a further source of test unreliability.

1. Content-Related Evidence

• If a test actually samples the subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn, and if it requires the test-taker to perform the behavior that is being measured, it can claim content-related evidence of validity, often popularly referred to as content validity (e.g., Mousavi, 2002;Hughes, 2003).

2. Criterion-Related Evidence
    Criterion-related evidence usually falls into one of two categories :

    a. Concurrent validity

• A test has concurrent validity if its results are supported by other concurrent performance beyond the assessment itself. For example, the validity of a high score on the final exam of a foreign language course will be substantiated by actual proficiency in the language.

    b. Predictive validity

• The predictive validity of an assessment becomes important in the case of placement tests, admissions assessment batteries, language aptitude tests and the like.

3. Construct-related Evidence

• This one does not play as large role for classroom teachers. Constructs may or may not be directly or empirically measured - their verification often requires inferential data.

4. Consequential Validity

• Consequential validity encompasses all the consequences of a test, including such considerations as its accuracy in measuring intended criteria, its impact on the preparation of test-takers, its effect on the learner, and the (intended and unintended) social sequences of a test's interpretation and use.

5. Face Validity

• "Face validity refers to the degree to which a test looks right and appears to measure the knowledge or abilities it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment of the examinees who take it, the administrative personnel who decide on its use, and other psychometrically unsophisticated obeservers" (Mousavi, 2002).